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Research Reports |
GB Salsich, PT, PhD, is Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, 1540 E Alcazar St, CHP-155, Los Angeles, CA 90089 (USA) (salsich{at}hsc.usc.edu). Address all correspondence to Dr Salsich
MJ Mueller, PT, PhD, is Associate Professor, Program in Physical Therapy, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, Mo
SA Sahrmann, PT, PhD, FAPTA, is Professor and Associate Director for Doctoral Studies, Program in Physical Therapy, Washington University School of Medicine
Submitted March 15, 1999;
Accepted January 3, 2000
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Key Words: Biomechanics • Plantar flexor muscles • Range of motion
| Introduction |
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Both active tension and passive tension contribute to the overall (total) tension produced by a muscle; therefore, both types of tension may contribute to movement. Although the effect of active tension production on movement has been studied under many different conditions,5–13 the effect of passive tension has not been studied extensively. Under conditions of decreased active tension production, such as disease or disuse, passive tension may make a greater contribution to total tension production than in healthy conditions.14,15 For example, the net ankle joint moment during the stance phase of gait is due to both active and passive components of the plantar flexor muscles.16 In the absence of appropriate active tension, it is possible that a considerable portion of the ankle moment during gait may come from passive structures.14,15
Several researchers17,18 have attempted to quantify the passive tension (and passive stiffness) of plantar flexor muscles in humans by measuring passive ankle torque and assuming that the major contributor to this torque is the plantar flexor muscle group. Gajdosik et al17 described a method of assessing plantar flexor extensibility (the inverse of stiffness) in a study investigating the effect of age on passive and active torque variables in women. Although they reported no difference in actual passive extensibility (change in ankle joint angle per change in passive torque) of the plantar flexors, they observed a left shift of the peak passive and active torque values in the older age group (peak active and passive torque values occurred at a relatively more plantar-flexed joint angle).
Chesworth and Vandervoort19 attempted to quantify passive stiffness variables in subjects who had their foot and ankle casted after an ankle fracture. Using a method similar to that of Gajdosik et al,17 they generated passive torque versus angle curves for the casted and noncasted ankles of each subject, and they determined the passive torque at a specific joint angle (0° of dorsiflexion) and passive stiffness (slope of the torque curve) at the same angle. The results showed no difference in passive torque at 0 degrees of dorsiflexion between the casted and noncasted ankles. There was a difference in passive stiffness, however, at 0 degrees of dorsiflexion. The authors suggested that the angle at which the ankles were casted (0° of dorsiflexion) may have been sufficient to lengthen the plantar flexors during immobilization, such that the effects of immobilization on passive torque at that angle were prevented. They noted, however, that the casted ankles demonstrated less dorsiflexion motion.
Although researchers have examined passive ankle torque and stiffness in elderly people with no known pathology17 and young patients postfracture,19 few studies have quantified passive muscle stiffness in patients with notable pathology and impairments such as decreased range of motion and decreased force. Sinkjaer and Magnussen18 measured passive and reflex-mediated stiffness in the plantar flexor muscles of patients with hemiplegia and found an increase in passive stiffness of the paretic limb compared with the contralateral limb. The amplitude of the stretch, however, was relatively small (4°). Passive torque and stiffness at end-range dorsiflexion were not examined.
Another group of patients with known pathology and impairments consists of patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) and peripheral neuropathy (PN). Mueller et al20 and Andersen and colleagues21,22 found that subjects with DM and PN had decreased plantar flexor muscle peak torque compared with control subjects, and several authors20,23,24 have documented decreased ankle joint motion in this population. Furthermore, some subjects with DM and PN have been shown to have altered gait characteristics20 and postural instability,25 and we have observed that they often complain of stiffness during daily activities.
Research has provided evidence that the ultrastructure of collagen, a component of the elastic elements of muscle, is altered with long-term DM.26 With sustained high glucose concentrations, a chemical reaction appears to occur between the free amino group of structural proteins and glucose, forming irreversible products called advanced glycosylated end-products (AGEs).26 These AGEs tend to accumulate on long-lived structural proteins, such as collagen and basement membrane proteins, leading to cross-linking between AGE molecules, and with other unmodified proteins through covalent trapping.26
In light of the diminished peak torque and ankle joint motion, altered gait characteristics, and physiological changes in connective tissue that occur with DM and PN, we believe passive stiffness also may be altered in this population, which has important implications for movement. For example, increased plantar flexor stiffness may limit dorsiflexion motion, leading to abnormal gait characteristics, but it may also positively influence gait by contributing to supportive and propulsive forces during the stance phase. Furthermore, quantifying stiffness may provide insights into the management of patients with DM and PN and other neuromuscular or musculoskeletal conditions. For example, increased plantar flexor stiffness may contribute to increased plantar pressure during gait, a phenomenon associated with recurrent plantar ulceration in patients with DM and PN.27 Minimizing plantar flexor stiffness or teaching patients to walk within a "low stiffness" ankle range of motion may be indicated. The purpose of our study was to quantify and compare variables associated with passive stiffness in subjects with DM and PN and an age-matched comparison group. We hypothesized that subjects with DM and PN would have greater plantar flexor stiffness (change in passive torque per unit change in joint angle) and greater passive torque at 5 degrees of dorsiflexion than subjects in the comparison group. We also hypothesized that subjects with DM and PN would have less ankle motion (dorsiflexion range of motion), resulting in a "shift" of the passive torque versus angle curve in the direction of plantar flexion.
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2 times per week). No attempt was made to assess the activity level of the subjects of either group. Because none of the subjects with DM and PN were involved in regular aerobic exercise, however, we added this exclusion criterion for the subjects in the comparison group.
Procedure
Each subject was tested in a single session. The procedures were explained thoroughly, and all subjects read and signed an institutional review board-approved informed consent statement prior to testing. A brief medical history was obtained, and demographic data were recorded, including date of birth, sex, height, weight, body mass index, general health status, and activity level. Subjects with DM and PN were asked specific questions regarding the history, duration, and their control of diabetes.
Range of motion and peak torque.
To characterize the clinical status of our subjects, measurements of dorsiflexion range of motion and plantar flexor peak torque were obtained. All measurements were taken on one lower extremity for each subject. No attempt was made to randomize the selection of right versus left side, but there was no reason to believe there would be an inherent "side" difference in the measures used in this study. Maximal dorsiflexion range of motion was measured with a masked goniometer (1° increments), with the subject lying prone in knee extension. After 3 to 5 practice trials, the subject was asked to pull his or her toes up and hold the position while the examiner aligned the stationary arm of the goniometer parallel to the fibula. The movable arm of the goniometer was positioned parallel to the sole of the foot, and the axis fell approximately over the lateral calcaneus. The goniometer was then given to a second examiner to read. Intrarater reliability was determined by having the examiner obtain 2 dorsiflexion measurements, approximately 30 seconds apart, while the subjects remained in the prone position. With a sample size of 34 (17 subjects with DM and 17 subjects without DM), the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC [2,1]) was .95. We acknowledge the possibility of inflated ICC values due to the method of obtaining the repeated measurements.
Plantar flexor peak torque was estimated using an isokinetic device. The set-up procedures are described in the "Stiffness Measurements" section. Once positioned properly, subjects were asked to push as hard possible from maximal dorsiflexion into plantar flexion (determination of range is described in the "Stiffness Measurements" section). Concentric peak torque values from 3 trials of maximal plantar flexion were recorded and averaged for each subject. Intrarater reliability for concentric peak torque measurements was obtained using the 3 maximal plantar-flexion trials. Subjects were not removed from the device, but there was approximately 30 seconds of rest between trials. Using 34 subjects (17 with DM and 17 without DM), the ICC (2,1) value was .97.
Sensation testing.
Sensory testing using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments was performed on each subject to assist in the confirmation of PN in the subjects with DM. This procedure involved using a 5.07 monofilament and testing several sites on the plantar surface of both feet as described by Mueller et al.23 These sites, tested approximately 3 to 5 times, were (1) the first, third, and fifth toes and the metatarsal heads, (2) the medial and lateral midfoot, and (3) the heel.23 Subjects lacked protective sensation if they could not detect the 5.07 monofilament on 80% of the trials.28
Stiffness measurements.
In order to verify that the stiffness measurements were truly passive (no active muscle contractions elicited), electromyographic (EMG) monitoring (GCS-67 Multichannel Electromyographic System*) was used throughout the procedure. The anterior and posterior surfaces of the shank (same lower extremity used in the previous procedures) were cleaned with alcohol to reduce skin impedance. Surface electrodes, with attached preamplifiers, were applied over the belly of the anterior tibialis, gastrocnemius, and soleus muscle (distal to the gastrocnemius muscle belly and lateral to the Achilles tendon). The EMG amplifier gain settings ranged from 500 to 10,000 and were adjusted based on the EMG signal output viewed on an analog oscilloscope. The raw signal was collected and high-pass filtered at 40 Hz, creating a frequency response of 40 to 4,000 Hz.
A Kin-Com dynamometer (Kinetic Communicator Exercise System III–500H, software version 4.06)
with attached ankle apparatus was used to assess passive plantar flexor torque. The Kin-Com is a hydraulically driven, computer-controlled device that monitors force through a strain gauge bridge transducer located on a rigid mechanical lever arm. The Kin-Com was set in the isokinetic mode for ankle plantar flexion, and the gravity-correction procedure was performed on the empty ankle apparatus according to the manufacturer's instructions. The limb was not included in the gravity correction because we assumed the weight of the foot (approximately 1.5% of body weight16) to be negligible. Each subject was positioned supine on the Kin-Com bench with the knee in 10 degrees of flexion (maintained by placing a rolled towel under the knee). Ten degrees of knee flexion was chosen because it approximates the maximal knee extension angle during gait29,30 and we believe it is a better position in which to assess stiffness. The foot was then placed in the ankle apparatus and positioned, by visual approximation, such that the point midway between the lateral and medial malleolus in the sagittal plane was aligned with the axis of rotation of the Kin-Com. The subject's foot, ankle, and thigh were secured with straps. To check for a discrepancy between the subject's ankle angle and the Kin-Com angle, the height of the dynamometer was adjusted until the subject's shank was parallel to the floor, and the Kin-Com footplate was placed in a vertical position (confirmed with a level), which produced a reading of 0 degrees. The subject's ankle angle was measured with a goniometer to verify a neutral dorsiflexion position (0°±1°).
Once proper joint alignment was achieved, the examiner passively moved the subject's ankle into dorsiflexion and plantar flexion approximately 10 times to allow the calf muscles to relax. The examiner determined the maximal dorsiflexion angle by the presence of a firm end-feel (the point at which firm resistance to motion was detected, even when additional force was applied). Subject complaints (eg, pain, severe stretching), increased EMG activity, and limb movement in the apparatus were monitored during the procedure. If increased EMG activity was viewed on the oscilloscope, the subject was instructed to relax, and the procedure was repeated. For 3 subjects (2 subjects with DM and PN and 1 subject in the comparison group), EMG activity could not be ablated at end-range. As a result, it was necessary to use a lesser maximal dorsiflexion angle (
=6.7°) for these subjects. If any heel movement was detected in the apparatus, the subject's foot was repositioned and straps were adjusted. Once the maximal dorsiflexion angle was established, the subject's ankle was moved into plantar flexion as far as possible within the constraints of the apparatus, and this plantar-flexion angle became the starting position for the passive test. No specific maximal plantar-flexion angle was used, as all subjects were able to reach an angle sufficient to slacken the plantar flexor muscles. Intrarater reliability of maximal dorsiflexion angle measurements was established in a group of 10 subjects of mixed sex, age, activity level, and disease status (subjects with DM and PN versus subjects in the comparison group). The examiner, who was blinded to the Kin-Com readings, obtained 3 measurements of maximal dorsiflexion angle. Subjects were not removed from the apparatus, but a 30-second rest period was provided between measurements. The resulting ICC (2,1) value was .98.
The Kin-Com ankle apparatus moved the ankle joint from the starting position of maximal plantar flexion into maximal dorsiflexion (average range: 43.8° for subjects with DM and PN and 53.4° for subjects in the comparison group), while the subject's muscles remained passive. Three trials of torque and angle data were collected at a speed of 60°/s, chosen because it approximates the average ankle joint velocity during gait.16 In addition, pilot work indicated that passive torque curves at 60°/s did not appear different from curves generated at 5°/s (ie, there was no evidence of a velocity effect on passive torque) (GB Salsich and colleagues, unpublished research). Similar findings were noted by Lamontagne et al.31
During the passive test, EMG signals were viewed on the oscilloscope to check for deviations from the subject's baseline signals, which were visually observed on the oscilloscope prior to ankle movement. In addition, the passive torque curves were viewed throughout the procedure to check the consistency of their shape (overlay), and a coefficient of variation (CV) of the whole curve (ensemble average)29 was calculated for each subject, using the 3 recorded passive torque curves. The average CV was 0.09 (range=0.05–0.20) for subjects with DM and PN and 0.07 (range=0.3–0.16) for subjects in the comparison group. The consistency of the passive torque curves indicated that the subjects' muscles remained passive throughout the trials.
Data Reduction
For each subject, ASCII data from the 3 passive torque trials were imported into a spreadsheet for manipulation. The 3 passive torque trials were averaged, and the resulting torque versus angle curves were normalized by body mass and plotted. From the averaged passive curve, the following variables were obtained: maximal dorsiflexion angle, initial angle (defined as the angle at which passive torque is 0 N·m) (Fig. 1), plantar flexor muscle excursion (the difference between the maximal dorsiflexion angle and the initial angle), peak passive torque, passive torque at 5 degrees of dorsiflexion, and stiffness. Although 10 degrees of dorsiflexion has been reported to be necessary for normal gait32 and, therefore, would have been a more "critical" angle at which to measure passive torque, 5 degrees of dorsiflexion was used because it was found to be the mean maximal dorsiflexion angle in a group of subjects with DM and PN.23
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Intrarater reliability of all passive torque variables was determined from the 3 passive torque trials. Subjects were not removed from the device, but there was approximately 30 seconds of rest between trials. The ICCs (2,1) were .97 (initial angle), .97 (peak passive torque), .97 (passive torque at 5° of dorsiflexion), .87 (slope of the first half of the passive torque curve), and .95 (slope of the second half of the passive torque curve).
Data Analysis
To determine whether mean differences in passive torque variables occurred between the 2 subject groups, Student t tests were performed on the following variables: slope of the first half of the passive torque curve, slope of the second half of the passive torque curve, mean passive torque at 5 degrees of dorsiflexion, and mean peak passive torque. In addition, t tests were used to compare the mean values of maximal dorsiflexion angle (Kin-Com measurement), initial angle, and plantar flexor muscle excursion. The 
level was set at .007 for each test (.05/7), in order to protect against a Type I error.34
| Results |
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| Discussion |
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There are several possible explanations as to why the subjects with DM and PN demonstrated a decreased maximal dorsiflexion angle compared with the subjects in the comparison group. Patients with DM and PN often have a decreased ability to generate muscle force (active torque production) associated with motor neuropathy,7,21,22 and our subject population appeared to follow this pattern. Table 1 shows that the subjects with DM and PN had approximately 36% less concentric plantar flexor peak torque compared with subjects in the comparison group. In weight-bearing conditions such as the stance phase of gait, decreased plantar flexor muscle active torque production may result in a loss of stability, especially at greater dorsiflexion angles, where the body's center of mass is more anterior to the ankle joint. In order to maintain stability, a person might limit the amount of dorsiflexion, decreasing the force required by the plantar flexor muscles to maintain equilibrium. In addition, a loss of dorsiflexor muscle force may result in decreased dorsiflexion motion in non–weight-bearing conditions such as the swing phase of gait.
Another factor that may have contributed to the observed decreased dorsiflexion motion is the sensory loss associated with PN. Subjects with DM and PN have not only demonstrated loss of light touch and pressure-detection ability23,25,35 and decreased vibratory sense,24,25,35 they also have been shown to have diminished movement perception at the ankle joint.25,35 In addition, each of these sensory deficits has been found to be related to decreased stability in subjects with DM and PN.25 Although we measured only light touch and pressure, it is likely that our subjects with DM and PN had additional sensory deficits.
Lastly, the accumulation of AGEs in collagen may have played a role in limiting maximal dorsiflexion. Several authors24,36,37 have described limited joint mobility in patients with diabetes and attributed this syndrome to changes in the ultrastructure of collagen in various periarticular tissues.
It is possible that all of these factors (ie, loss of plantar flexor force, loss of dorsiflexor force, diminished sensation, and accumulation of AGEs) lead to a limitation in the amount of dorsiflexion range of motion used by people with DM and PN. Over time, it is not unlikely that a limitation in dorsiflexion could result in the development of plantar flexion contractures. In this study, the initial angle (angle at 0 N·m) was not different in the 2 groups (subjects with DM and PN: –33.6°±6.3°; subjects in comparison group: –36.4°±4.6°), indicating that subjects with DM and PN did not have a complete shift in the passive torque curve toward plantar flexion. Instead, they appeared to have decreased excursion (length change capability) of the plantar flexor muscle group, as reflected in the difference between the initial angle and the maximal dorsiflexion angle between the 2 groups (subjects with DM and PN: 43.8°±9.7°; subjects in comparison group: 53.4°±5.7°, P=0.001). Although the ankle joints of our subjects with DM and PN were not "immobilized," these subjects demonstrated a decreased maximal dorsiflexion angle, possibly from working in a restricted range of motion over time. Williams et al38 found that hamster diaphragm muscles that were forced to work in a shortened range of motion demonstrated a loss of sarcomeres, similar to the loss of sarcomeres that occurs during cast immobilization of a muscle in a shortened position.
A puzzling result, however, was that there was less peak passive torque in the subjects with DM and PN than in the subjects in the comparison group (0.22±0.07 N·m/kg versus 0.30±0.07 N·m/kg; P=.002). If a plantar flexor contracture had developed, we would expect at least as much peak passive torque in this subject group, similar to the findings of Tardieu et al39 in their study of the effects of immobilization on cat soleus muscles. There is some recent evidence, however, in support of our findings. Brown et al40 reported a decrease in peak passive tension in the soleus and peroneus longus muscles of rats that had undergone a period of hind-limb unweighting (a model of reduced muscle use). In addition, these muscles had reduced excursion (length change from resting length). The authors reported that actual tearing of the unweighted muscles limited the amount of length change that could be induced.40 Similarly, Gajdosik et al41 reported decreased peak passive plantar flexor torque and decreased angular change (synonymous with our definition of plantar flexor excursion) in older women compared with younger women.
Our finding of less peak passive torque in subjects with DM and PN suggests that passive elastic stiffness was not the main factor determining the maximal dorsiflexion angle. As described in our "Method" section, we noted subject complaints, EMG activity, and lower-extremity movement during the maximal dorsiflexion angle measurement. Most of our subjects were limited by the sensation of end-range (excessive calf stretching). Three subjects, however, were limited by excessive EMG activity (2 subjects with DM and PN and 1 subject in the comparison group). Our belief was that the examiner's effort was consistent across all subjects such that there was no subjective examiner bias limiting dorsiflexion in the subjects with DM and PN. Instead, it appeared that the subjects with increased EMG activity were "protecting" their plantar flexor muscles from further lengthening.
Chesworth and Vandervoort19 described similar phenomena in their study of stiffness in casted versus noncasted ankles. Their results showed that the casted ankles had less dorsiflexor motion and excessive plantar flexor EMG activity compared with the noncasted ankles. The authors interpreted these findings as evidence of a protective mechanism elicited by the nervous system to prevent the immobilized muscle from being injured as it was lengthened.
Stiffness Measurements
Contrary to our hypothesis, the subjects with DM and PN did not demonstrate greater passive stiffness in the plantar flexor muscle group than did the subjects in the comparison group, as measured by any of the passive torque variables (Tab. 2). These findings are similar to those of Gajdosik et al,41 who studied the effect of age on passive plantar flexor stiffness in women. They reported no difference in stiffness over the first half of the range of motion between age groups (young: 0.26 N·m/degree, middle-aged: 0.30 N·m/degree, old: 0.29 N·m/degree) and no difference in stiffness over the second half of the range of motion, except between the oldest age group and the youngest age group (young : 0.74 N·m/degree, middle-aged: 0.69 N·m/degree, old: 0.59 N·m/degree). Not only are our findings similar to those of Gajdosik et al, but our actual stiffness values are similar as well, considering that our groups contained male subjects. Had we used Gajdosik and colleagues' method of determining initial angle and had we not normalized torque by body mass, our stiffness 1 values would have been 0.33 N·m/degree for the subjects in the comparison group and 0.28 N·m/degree for the subjects with DM and PN and our stiffness 2 values would have been 0.92 N·m/degree for the subjects in the comparison group and 0.79 N·m/degree for the subjects with DM and PN.
One possible explanation for our finding of no difference in stiffness is that the changes in collagen that have been associated with diabetes might not affect the elastic stiffness of the plantar flexor muscle group. Several researchers42,43 have suggested that structures containing collagen within the muscle tendon unit (perimysium, endomysium) contribute to passive stiffness mostly at end-range (long sarcomere lengths) and that, within the physiological range of muscle length change, passive stiffness can be attributed to structures within the myofibril (eg, structural proteins such as titin). Thus, changes in collagen ultra-structure (from AGEs) would most likely have little effect on passive stiffness measured throughout the range of motion, as was done in our study.
Furthermore, if the major sources of passive tension in skeletal muscle were myofibrillar structures, passive stiffness would be directly proportional to the amount of these structures present. Muscle size, therefore, would be positively correlated with passive stiffness, and recent research has provided evidence of this. Chleboun et al33 examined passive stiffness in the elbow flexor muscles and found a positive correlation between elbow flexor muscle volume and passive stiffness (r=.92). Given this finding, it would be likely that muscle atrophy would be associated with a decrease in passive stiffness, and subjects with DM and PN have been shown to have decreased muscle cross-sectional area associated with muscle atrophy. Andersen et al22 found a 43% decrease in the cross-sectional area of the plantar flexor muscle group that corresponded to a 45% reduction in muscle force in subjects with DM and PN compared with control subjects. Consequently, the combination of muscle atrophy (which would decrease passive stiffness) and collagen cross-linking (which would increase passive stiffness) may have resulted in no net change in passive stiffness in the plantar flexor muscles of the subjects with DM and PN.
Implications and Limitations of the Study
The results of our study indicate that in subjects with DM and PN, decreased dorsiflexion range of motion occurred without a change in plantar flexor muscle stiffness. In light of this finding, clinicians should be cautious when using the terms "stiffness" and "decreased range of motion" interchangeably. Patients with DM and PN often describe joint stiffness, as do patients with a wide variety of diseases and injuries, and clinicians typically believe their interventions will decrease stiffness. The results of our study suggest that what appears to be muscle stiffness may actually be decreased joint motion due to loss of muscle excursion (shortness). Therefore, treatment techniques such as muscle stretching, although possibly increasing range of motion, most likely will have no effect on passive muscle stiffness. The findings of Halbertsma et al44 support this clinical implication. The authors reported no change in passive hamstring muscle stiffness after a stretching protocol, despite an increase in hip flexion range of motion. Understanding treatment rationale is critical to effective patient management.
Although the results of our study provide clinical implications, there are several limitations in the study design. One limitation was in the subject groups chosen for analysis. Although the subjects with DM and PN had less dorsiflexion range of motion than the subjects in the comparison group, the groups did not differ in stiffness. Because we did not study subjects with DM who did not have PN, we cannot dissociate the effect of the disease from the effect of neuropathy. It was not the purpose of our study, however, to parse out the effects of specific components of diabetes on muscle stiffness, but rather to determine whether differences in stiffness could be detected in subjects with known pathology and impairments (eg, decreased range of motion, decreased muscle force) compared with a comparison group.
Ankle joint stiffness is not synonymous with plantar flexor muscle stiffness. Although it is possible that tissues such as joint capsule, skin, ligaments, and cartilage contribute to passive ankle torque, we believe their contributions are minor throughout the range of motion used in our study. Gillette and Fell45 examined the contributions to passive ankle tension from muscle, skin, and joint tissues in rats after a period of hind-limb suspension. The authors attributed 75% of passive ankle joint tension (present at 45° of dorsiflexion) to the plantar flexor muscle tendon units and 25% to joint structures.
Another limitation involves the number of subjects we studied (n=17 per group). The lack of difference in stiffness between groups may have been a result of the sample size, and increasing the number of subjects may have made it easier to detect differences (ie, greater statistical power). However, we believe the similarities of the passive torque curves in both groups indicate that lack of power was not the issue. The mean passive plantar flexor torque versus ankle joint angle curve for the subjects with DM and PN was nearly identical to that of the comparison group (Fig. 2).
Further studies are needed to determine whether passive stiffness is altered in other patient populations and to determine whether passive stiffness relates to other clinical measures (active muscle tension and joint range of motion). In addition, studies are needed to determine whether passive stiffness affects functional activities such as gait. Knowledge of these relationships would provide insight into mechanisms used by the body to compensate for specific tension or range of motion deficits as well as how specific impairments affect function. Knowledge of these relationships also would provide insight into treatment implications for patients with various diseases or disuse conditions.
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| Footnotes |
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This study was completed in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Dr Salsich's doctoral degree in the Interdisciplinary Program in Movement Science, Washington University School of Medicine.
This study was approved by the Washington University School of Medicine Human Studies Committee.
This study was supported by a postprofessional doctoral scholarship from the American Physical Therapy Association and by National Center for Medical Rehabilitation Research grants 2T32HD07434-04A1 and 1RO1HD36802-01 (Dr Mueller).
* Therapeutics Unlimited Inc, 2835 Friendship St, Iowa City, IA 52240. 
Chattanooga Group Inc, 4717 Adams Rd, PO Box 489, Hixson, TN 37343.
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